Revisiting digital game-based mathematics learning: Global insights into thinking and attitudes from a PRISMA-guided review
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Abstract
This study employed a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines to evaluate the impact of Game-Based Learning (GBL) on students’ cognitive and affective domains in mathematics education. Seventeen empirical studies published between 2018 and early 2025 were rigorously selected based on strict criteria emphasizing methodological quality and relevance to cognitive and affective aspects of mathematics learning. The findings consistently indicate that GBL significantly enhances cognitive outcomes, including conceptual understanding, problem-solving skills, and critical thinking abilities—particularly when supported by digital tools such as augmented reality, 3D escape rooms, and gamified platforms. In addition, GBL positively influences affective outcomes by increasing student motivation, fostering more favorable attitudes toward mathematics, and reducing math anxiety. However, assessments of affective domains remain less standardized than those of cognitive outcomes. Key contextual factors such as students’ prior knowledge, the quality of game design, intervention duration, and teacher preparedness were found to be critical in determining GBL effectiveness. The review also highlights the dominance of digital GBL in resource-rich environments while recognizing the potential of non-digital adaptations in low-resource contexts. Drawing on diverse international evidence, this review underscores GBL’s potential as an innovative pedagogical strategy that effectively integrates cognitive and affective learning. Practical recommendations include culturally responsive game design, comprehensive teacher training, and equitable access to technology to ensure successful GBL implementation across varied educational settings.
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Yulianto, D., Situmeang, M. S., Anwar, S., & Puspitasari, N. (2025). Revisiting digital game-based mathematics learning: Global insights into thinking and attitudes from a PRISMA-guided review. Kalamatika: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika, 10(2), 94-116. https://doi.org/10.22236/KALAMATIKA.vol10no2.2025pp94-116
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References
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Cai, J., & Hwang, S. (2020). Learning to teach through mathematical problem posing: Theoretical considerations, methodology, and directions for future research. International Journal of Educational Research, 102, 101391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.01.001
Chiu, M.-S., & Seah, W. T. (2024). Values and valuing pedagogies in affect-focused mathematics teaching. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, 101050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101050
Choi, Á., Hurtado, M., Santín, D., Sicilia, G., & Simancas, R. (2025). Stalemate? The complex relationship between educational chess and students’ skills. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 57, 101819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101819
Christopoulos, A., Mystakidis, S., Kurczaba, J., Laakso, M.-J., & Stylios, C. (2024). Is Immersion in 3D Virtual Games Associated with Mathematical Ability Improvement in Game-Based Learning? International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 22(7), 1479–1499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10440-4
Clark, C, & Picton, I. (2020). Children and young people’s reading in 2020 before and during lockdown. London: National Literacy Trust.
Commonwealth of Learning. (2020). Towards more resilient schooling: Possible models for the future. Commonwealth of Learning. https://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/3612
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Ding, A.-C. E., & Yu, C.-H. (2024). Serious game-based learning and learning by making games: Types of game-based pedagogies and student gaming hours impact students’ science learning outcomes. Computers & Education, 218, 105075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105075
Dwi, D. Y., Egi Adha Juniawan, & Yusup Junaedi. (2025). A Gender and Feedback Effects in Digital Game-Based Learning for Primary Mathematics Education. Edumatica: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika, 15(1), 102–122. https://doi.org/10.22437/edumatica.v15i1.43673
Groening, C., & Binnewies, C. (2019). “Achievement unlocked!” - The impact of digital achievements as a gamification element on motivation and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.02.026
Gui, Y., Cai, Z., Zhang, S., & Fan, X. (2025). Dyads composed of members with high prior knowledge are most conducive to digital game-based collaborative learning. Computers & Education, 230, 105266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105266
Gundersen, S. W., & Lampropoulos, G. (2025). Using Serious Games and Digital Games to Improve Students’ Computational Thinking and Programming Skills in K-12 Education: A Systematic Literature Review. Technologies, 13(3), 113. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13030113
Hu, Y., Gallagher, T., Wouters, P., van der Schaaf, M., & Kester, L. (2022). Game‐based learning has good chemistry with chemistry education: A three‐level meta‐analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 59(9), 1499–1543. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21765
Jain, A., Sharma, P., & Meher, J. R. (2023). Effects of online platforms on learner's satisfaction: A serial mediation analysis with instructor presence and student engagement. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 40(5), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-02-2023-0017
Jiménez, C., Arís, N., Magreñán Ruiz, Á., & Orcos, L. (2020). Digital Escape Room, Using Genial.ly and A Breakout to Learn Algebra at Secondary Education Level in Spain. Education Sciences, 10(10), 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10100271
Kiili, K., Moeller, K., & Ninaus, M. (2018). Evaluating the effectiveness of a game-based rational number training - In-game metrics as learning indicators. Computers & Education, 120, 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.012
Kim, J., & Pang, J. (2022). An Analysis of Sustainable Activities in Japanese, Korean, and Singaporean Elementary Mathematics Textbooks. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(2), em2080. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/11651
Landis, J.R. and Koch, G.G. (1977). An Application of Hierarchical Kappa-Type Statistics in the Assessment of Majority Agreement among Multiple Observers. Biometrics, 33, 363-374. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529786
Lee Yan, L. L., & Mohd Matore, M. E. (2023). Gamification Trend in Students’ Mathematics Learning Through Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v12-i1/15732
Legaki, N.-Z., Xi, N., Hamari, J., Karpouzis, K., & Assimakopoulos, V. (2020). The effect of challenge-based gamification on learning: An experiment in the context of statistics education. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 144, 102496. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2020.102496
Leonardou, A., Rigou, M., & Garofalakis, J. (2019). Opening user model data for motivation and learning: The case of an adaptive multiplication game. In CSEDU 2019 - Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computer Supported Education, 1, pp. 383–390. https://doi.org/10.5220/0007735603830390
Leonardou, A., Rigou, M., & Garofalakis, J. (2020). Techniques to motivate learner improvement in game-based assessment. Information (Switzerland), 11(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/info11040176
Lerkkanen, M.K., Pakarinen, E., Salminen, J. et al. (2023). Reading and math skills development among Finnish primary school children before and after COVID-19 school closure. Read Writ 36, 263–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10358-3
Lo, C. K., Hew, K. F., & Jong, M. S. (2024). The influence of ChatGPT on student engagement: A systematic review and future research agenda. Computers & Education, 219, 105100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105100
Moon, J., Yeo, S., Banihashem, S. K., & Noroozi, O. (2024). Using multimodal learning analytics as a formative assessment tool: Exploring collaborative dynamics in mathematics teacher education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(6), 2753–2771. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.13028
Munirah, S., Nasir, M., Zamzamir, Z., Tajudin, M., Hasan, N., Ahmat, N., & Retnowati, E. (2020). 99 Need Analysis for the Development of a Game-Based Learning Kit on Isometric Transformations. Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 17(10), 510. https://www.archives.palarch.nl/index.php/jae/article/view/4380
Mutlu-Bayraktar, D., Cosgun, V., & Altan, T. (2019). Cognitive load in multimedia learning environments: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 141, 103618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103618
Oladejo, A. I., Olateju, T. T., Okebukola, P. A., Agboluaje, T. M., Sanni, R., Shabani, J., Akinola, V. O., & Ebisin, A. (2023). The convergence of culture, technology and context: A pathway to reducing mathophobia and improving achievement in mathematics. School Science and Mathematics, 123(2), 82–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12573
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual Evolution from Adolescence to Adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000271225
OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 Results (Volume I). https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en
Radkowitsch, A., Sailer, M., Schmidmaier, R., Fischer, M. R., & Fischer, F. (2021). Learning to diagnose collaboratively – Effects of adaptive collaboration scripts in agent-based medical simulations. Learning and Instruction, 75, 101487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101487
Rosillo, N., & Montes, N. (2021). An escape room dual-mode approach to teach maths during the COVID-19 era. Mathematics, 9(20). https://doi.org/10.3390/math9202602
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Schöbel, S., Saqr, M., & Janson, A. (2021). Two decades of game concepts in digital learning environments: A bibliometric study and research agenda. Computers & Education, 173, 104296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104296
Szabo, Z. K., Körtesi, P., Guncaga, J., Szabo, D., & Neag, R. (2020). Examples of Problem-Solving Strategies in Mathematics Education Supporting the Sustainability of 21st-Century Skills. Sustainability, 12(23), 10113. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122310113
Thomas, J. & Harden, A. (2008). Methods for the Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Research in Systematic Reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8, 45.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-45
Varas-Pavez, A., Sepúlveda, F., Balladares, J., & Peake, C. (2025). Motivation and Mathematical Performance Using Digital Game-Based Learning in Kindergarten. Computers in the Schools, 42(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2024.2390404
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wardani, I., Tolle, H., & Aknuranda, I. (2019). Evaluation of an educational media on cube nets based on learning effectiveness and gamification parameters. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 14(14), 4–18. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i14.10505
Yulianto, D., Juniawan, E. A., Anwar, S., & Junaedi, Y. (2025). Innovative approaches to geometry learning: Harnessing gamification and ICT to elevate student motivation and academic achievement. SouthEast Asian Mathematics Education Journal, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.46517/seamej.v15i1.465
Yulianto, D., Umami, M. R., Junaedi, Y., & Anwar, S. (2024). Analysis of Mathematical Literacy among Junior High School Students in Lebak-Banten Regency: A Case Study of PISA-Type Questions Considering Accreditation, School Status, Skill Levels, and Gender. PAKAR Pendidikan, 22(1), 203–232. https://doi.org/10.24036/pakar.v22i1.509
Yung, O. C., Junaini, S. N., Kamal, A. A., & Md Ibharim, L. F. (2020). 1 Slash 100%: Gamification of mathematics with hybrid QR-based card game. Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 20(3), 1453–1459. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v20.i3.pp1453-1459
Zapata, M., Ramos-Galarza, C., Valencia-Aragón, K., & Guachi, L. (2024). Enhancing mathematics learning with 3D augmented reality escape room. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100389
Barros, C., Carvalho, A. A., & Salgueiro, A. (2020). The effect of the serious game Tempoly on learning arithmetic polynomial operations. Education and Information Technologies, 25(3), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09990-4
Bayaga, A. (2024). Enhancing M Enhancing mathematics problem-solving skills in an AI-driven environment: Integrated SEM-neural network approach. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100491
Cai, J., & Hwang, S. (2020). Learning to teach through mathematical problem posing: Theoretical considerations, methodology, and directions for future research. International Journal of Educational Research, 102, 101391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.01.001
Chiu, M.-S., & Seah, W. T. (2024). Values and valuing pedagogies in affect-focused mathematics teaching. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, 101050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101050
Choi, Á., Hurtado, M., Santín, D., Sicilia, G., & Simancas, R. (2025). Stalemate? The complex relationship between educational chess and students’ skills. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 57, 101819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101819
Christopoulos, A., Mystakidis, S., Kurczaba, J., Laakso, M.-J., & Stylios, C. (2024). Is Immersion in 3D Virtual Games Associated with Mathematical Ability Improvement in Game-Based Learning? International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 22(7), 1479–1499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-023-10440-4
Clark, C, & Picton, I. (2020). Children and young people’s reading in 2020 before and during lockdown. London: National Literacy Trust.
Commonwealth of Learning. (2020). Towards more resilient schooling: Possible models for the future. Commonwealth of Learning. https://oasis.col.org/handle/11599/3612
Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP). (2018). CASP qualitative study checklist. https://casp-uk.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CASP-Qualitative-Checklist-2018.pdf
Cueto, S., Balarin, M., Saavedra, M., & Sugimaru, C. (2023). Ed-tech in the Global South: Research gaps and opportunities (Occasional Paper No. 91). Southern Voice. https://southernvoice.org/publication/ed-tech-in-the-global-south/
Ding, A.-C. E., & Yu, C.-H. (2024). Serious game-based learning and learning by making games: Types of game-based pedagogies and student gaming hours impact students’ science learning outcomes. Computers & Education, 218, 105075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105075
Dwi, D. Y., Egi Adha Juniawan, & Yusup Junaedi. (2025). A Gender and Feedback Effects in Digital Game-Based Learning for Primary Mathematics Education. Edumatica: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika, 15(1), 102–122. https://doi.org/10.22437/edumatica.v15i1.43673
Groening, C., & Binnewies, C. (2019). “Achievement unlocked!” - The impact of digital achievements as a gamification element on motivation and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 151–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.02.026
Gui, Y., Cai, Z., Zhang, S., & Fan, X. (2025). Dyads composed of members with high prior knowledge are most conducive to digital game-based collaborative learning. Computers & Education, 230, 105266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105266
Gundersen, S. W., & Lampropoulos, G. (2025). Using Serious Games and Digital Games to Improve Students’ Computational Thinking and Programming Skills in K-12 Education: A Systematic Literature Review. Technologies, 13(3), 113. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13030113
Hu, Y., Gallagher, T., Wouters, P., van der Schaaf, M., & Kester, L. (2022). Game‐based learning has good chemistry with chemistry education: A three‐level meta‐analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 59(9), 1499–1543. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21765
Jain, A., Sharma, P., & Meher, J. R. (2023). Effects of online platforms on learner's satisfaction: A serial mediation analysis with instructor presence and student engagement. International Journal of Information and Learning Technology, 40(5), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJILT-02-2023-0017
Jiménez, C., Arís, N., Magreñán Ruiz, Á., & Orcos, L. (2020). Digital Escape Room, Using Genial.ly and A Breakout to Learn Algebra at Secondary Education Level in Spain. Education Sciences, 10(10), 271. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10100271
Kiili, K., Moeller, K., & Ninaus, M. (2018). Evaluating the effectiveness of a game-based rational number training - In-game metrics as learning indicators. Computers & Education, 120, 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.012
Kim, J., & Pang, J. (2022). An Analysis of Sustainable Activities in Japanese, Korean, and Singaporean Elementary Mathematics Textbooks. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(2), em2080. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/11651
Landis, J.R. and Koch, G.G. (1977). An Application of Hierarchical Kappa-Type Statistics in the Assessment of Majority Agreement among Multiple Observers. Biometrics, 33, 363-374. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529786
Lee Yan, L. L., & Mohd Matore, M. E. (2023). Gamification Trend in Students’ Mathematics Learning Through Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARPED/v12-i1/15732
Legaki, N.-Z., Xi, N., Hamari, J., Karpouzis, K., & Assimakopoulos, V. (2020). The effect of challenge-based gamification on learning: An experiment in the context of statistics education. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 144, 102496. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2020.102496
Leonardou, A., Rigou, M., & Garofalakis, J. (2019). Opening user model data for motivation and learning: The case of an adaptive multiplication game. In CSEDU 2019 - Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computer Supported Education, 1, pp. 383–390. https://doi.org/10.5220/0007735603830390
Leonardou, A., Rigou, M., & Garofalakis, J. (2020). Techniques to motivate learner improvement in game-based assessment. Information (Switzerland), 11(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/info11040176
Lerkkanen, M.K., Pakarinen, E., Salminen, J. et al. (2023). Reading and math skills development among Finnish primary school children before and after COVID-19 school closure. Read Writ 36, 263–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10358-3
Lo, C. K., Hew, K. F., & Jong, M. S. (2024). The influence of ChatGPT on student engagement: A systematic review and future research agenda. Computers & Education, 219, 105100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105100
Moon, J., Yeo, S., Banihashem, S. K., & Noroozi, O. (2024). Using multimodal learning analytics as a formative assessment tool: Exploring collaborative dynamics in mathematics teacher education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(6), 2753–2771. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.13028
Munirah, S., Nasir, M., Zamzamir, Z., Tajudin, M., Hasan, N., Ahmat, N., & Retnowati, E. (2020). 99 Need Analysis for the Development of a Game-Based Learning Kit on Isometric Transformations. Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, 17(10), 510. https://www.archives.palarch.nl/index.php/jae/article/view/4380
Mutlu-Bayraktar, D., Cosgun, V., & Altan, T. (2019). Cognitive load in multimedia learning environments: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 141, 103618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103618
Oladejo, A. I., Olateju, T. T., Okebukola, P. A., Agboluaje, T. M., Sanni, R., Shabani, J., Akinola, V. O., & Ebisin, A. (2023). The convergence of culture, technology and context: A pathway to reducing mathophobia and improving achievement in mathematics. School Science and Mathematics, 123(2), 82–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12573
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual Evolution from Adolescence to Adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000271225
OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 Results (Volume I). https://doi.org/10.1787/53f23881-en
Radkowitsch, A., Sailer, M., Schmidmaier, R., Fischer, M. R., & Fischer, F. (2021). Learning to diagnose collaboratively – Effects of adaptive collaboration scripts in agent-based medical simulations. Learning and Instruction, 75, 101487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101487
Rosillo, N., & Montes, N. (2021). An escape room dual-mode approach to teach maths during the COVID-19 era. Mathematics, 9(20). https://doi.org/10.3390/math9202602
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Schöbel, S., Saqr, M., & Janson, A. (2021). Two decades of game concepts in digital learning environments: A bibliometric study and research agenda. Computers & Education, 173, 104296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104296
Szabo, Z. K., Körtesi, P., Guncaga, J., Szabo, D., & Neag, R. (2020). Examples of Problem-Solving Strategies in Mathematics Education Supporting the Sustainability of 21st-Century Skills. Sustainability, 12(23), 10113. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122310113
Thomas, J. & Harden, A. (2008). Methods for the Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Research in Systematic Reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8, 45.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-45
Varas-Pavez, A., Sepúlveda, F., Balladares, J., & Peake, C. (2025). Motivation and Mathematical Performance Using Digital Game-Based Learning in Kindergarten. Computers in the Schools, 42(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2024.2390404
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wardani, I., Tolle, H., & Aknuranda, I. (2019). Evaluation of an educational media on cube nets based on learning effectiveness and gamification parameters. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 14(14), 4–18. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i14.10505
Yulianto, D., Juniawan, E. A., Anwar, S., & Junaedi, Y. (2025). Innovative approaches to geometry learning: Harnessing gamification and ICT to elevate student motivation and academic achievement. SouthEast Asian Mathematics Education Journal, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.46517/seamej.v15i1.465
Yulianto, D., Umami, M. R., Junaedi, Y., & Anwar, S. (2024). Analysis of Mathematical Literacy among Junior High School Students in Lebak-Banten Regency: A Case Study of PISA-Type Questions Considering Accreditation, School Status, Skill Levels, and Gender. PAKAR Pendidikan, 22(1), 203–232. https://doi.org/10.24036/pakar.v22i1.509
Yung, O. C., Junaini, S. N., Kamal, A. A., & Md Ibharim, L. F. (2020). 1 Slash 100%: Gamification of mathematics with hybrid QR-based card game. Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 20(3), 1453–1459. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v20.i3.pp1453-1459
Zapata, M., Ramos-Galarza, C., Valencia-Aragón, K., & Guachi, L. (2024). Enhancing mathematics learning with 3D augmented reality escape room. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100389